Respiratory Hazards

 Defending against the hazards of contaminated air

When the very air that we breathe is contaminated how can we protect ourselves and defend against its hazards?

The most important defence against respiratory hazards is to control the contamination at source and stop it entering the air in the first instance. This however, does not provide the solution to all circumstances and when it does not it will be necessary to use respiratory protective equipment.

Hazardous substances that can contaminate the air include dust, gases, fumes, mist, vapours, and smoke. Inhaling such contaminants can cause damage to many parts of the body including most commonly the nervous system, lungs, nose and throat. In some cases they can trigger allergic reactions such as asthma when inhaled. Oxygen-deficient atmospheres (i.e. when oxygen concentration in the air falls below 17%), also present an unacceptable hazard.

Occasionally work needs to be carried out in conditions that are described as being Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) and can occur when toxic chemicals, gases or particles are present or when there is a deficiency of oxygen. In such situations, individuals can be quickly overcome, are unable to effect an escape and could suffer severe and/or irreversible damage.

There are two ways to protect against such hazards. The first is to control the contamination at source and prevent it from entering the air in the first place. This can involve isolating the hazard, enclosing the function that is generating the contamination, ventilating the contaminated area and maintaining these systems to ensure they remain effective. In the situation that the source of contamination cannot be eliminated then the second method of protection is the use of respiratory protective equipment. Whilst this is often considered a last resort it is particularly practical when access to the contaminated area is needed for short periods of time or in emergency situations. Respiratory protective equipment suitable for these types of situations include masks, respirators, air-fed systems and self contained breathing apparatus.

Respiratory protection for fighting fires

 As statistics show that three out of four fire fatalities are caused by smoke inhalation, it is essential that respiratory protective equipment is worn when firefighters are subjected to or enter a hostile environment were chemical fumes, dust, fire, deficiency of oxygen or other respiratory hazards are expected. In most instances these will be life threatening situations and the protection afforded to the rescue personnel attending must be the very best available.

The protection factors provided by different types of Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE) are stated in BS EN 529:2005; Guide to implementing an effective respiratory device programme. As we face the increasing threat of terrorism, manufacturers and standards bodies are exploring ways to develop products capable of countering the types of hazards the modern firefighters and emergency response teams can expect to encounter, such as chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear agents.

The fire and rescue service will predominately utilise Respiratory Protective Equipment conforming to EN 137, self contained open circuit compressed air breathing apparatus. This consists of a single unit covering the eyes, nose and mouth area allowing the operative to communicate and move without compromising the level of protection. As with all protective equipment it is important that the compressed air cylinder aspect of the apparatus does not limit the firefighter in terms of weight or design and hinder them from operations. The apparatus must be capable of performing in all orientations.

Electrical & Fire Safety

Fire and Burn Prevention

• Fires and burnsare the second leading cause of household injuries.  Each year nearly4,000 people in the U.S. die in home fires.  Thousands of others are injuredas a result of fires or accidental burns.  Most of these deaths involvechildren and elderly adults.  Kitchen accidents, space heaters, chimneyfires, faulty electrical wiring, and cigarettes are common causes.  Checkyour home for fire hazards.  Install smoke detectors on every floor.

Tips on Fire Safety

• Dispose of cigarettes, cigars, and matches carefully.

• Install smoke detectors on each floor of your home and test them often.

• Plan two escape routes from each floor of your home and practice usingthem.  Be sure you can open doors and windows from the inside without akey.

• Never leave a burning candle or fireplace unattended.

• Don’t place anything that will burn near a furnace, water heater, spaceheater, or the stove top.

• Don’t use flammable chemicals near appliances with pilot lights.

• Have your furnace and chimney inspected each year.  Some utilitycompanies provide free or low cost inspections.

• Know how to put out kitchen fires.  If a fire occurs, don’tpanic.  For oven fires, close the door and turn off the oven.  Use apot lid to smother a stovetop fire.  Keep a filled ABC-rated fireextinguisher near the kitchen.

• Pay attention when you are cooking.  If you must leave the kitchenturn off all burners.

• Prevent scalds by setting your water heater to 120 degrees or lower. Anti-scald devices are available for bathtubs or showers.

• Know emergency phone numbers for your area.  In most places it is911.  Post the number near each telephone.  Teach children theemergency number.

Tips to Protect Children from Fires and Burns

• Teach children not to play with matches or lighters.  Store them outof sight and reach.

• Teach your children what to do if they smell smoke or hear the smoke alarm.

• Have children practice escaping from a fire.

• Never leave young children alone.

• Place pots and pans on the rear burner of the stove and always turn handlesinward so they are not accessible to toddlers.

• Keep the cords for crockpots, coffee makers, and deep fryers out of thereach of small children.

Electrical Safety

• While enjoyingelectric TVs, radios and other appliances, we may forget they can cause shocksand fires.  In 1990, bad plugs, cords, switches, and outlets caused about13,000 home fires and nearly 200 deaths.  Most electrical fires andinjuries can be prevented.  People should take the time to have theirelectrical systems inspected and learn about electrical safety.

Tips on Electrical Safety

• People who live in homes that are more than 10 years old should considerhaving the wiring inspected.  If your home is more than 40 years old, aninspection is overdue.  Be sure to consult with your local building inspectorbefore making repairs.

• Never place electric cords under rugs or bedding.  Heat or sparks fromthese cords could cause a fire.

• Follow the safety tips on new appliances.

• Check electrical cords for signs of wear.  Replace frayed or crackedcords to prevent shocks and fires.

• Check labels on lamps and use the right size bulb.  Check the label onyour fuse box and be sure you use the right size fuses.

• Fix electrical problems right away.  If fuses blow often, circuitbreakers trip often, switches get hot or people are shocked, something iswrong.

• Cover unused outlets with plastic plugs.

• If a cord has 3-prongs, use it properly.  Don’t remove the extraprong.  The third prong is there because the appliance must be grounded toprevent electrical shocks.

• Take cover during a thunder storm.  If you are indoors, stay away fromopen windows and doors and use the telephone only in an emergency.  If youare outdoors stay in your car and away from water, trees, and metalobjects.  Avoid low areas that might flood in a heavy rain.

• Do not overhaul outlets.  Extension cords shouldn't be used aspermanent fixtures in home rebuilding.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters

• A ground faultcircuit interrupter or GFCI is a special type of outlet that preventsshocks.  These outlets are recommended for areas where water isused.  Install GFCIs in bathrooms, kitchens (within 6 feet of the sink),laundry areas, garages, basements, outdoor outlets, and around pools, saunas,and hot tubs.  Test these outlets monthly.

For more information

• Fire Prevention: call your local fire department.

• Electrical Safety: call your local utility or an electrical contractor.

Hazardous Material

• Followthe instructions on the label and in the corresponding Material Safety DataSheet (MSDS) for each chemical product you will be using in your workplace

• Usepersonal protective clothing or equipment such as neoprene gloves, rubberboots, shoe covers, rubber aprons, and protective eyewear, when using chemicalslabeled "Flammable", "Corrosive", Caustic" or"Poisonous"

• Alwaysuse your chemical goggles and the face shield when handling chemicals labeled"Corrosive" or "Caustic"

• Do notuse protective clothing or equipment that has split seams, pin holes, cuts,tears, or other visible signs of damage

• Each timeyou use your gloves, wash them, before removing the gloves, using cold tapwater and normal hand washing motion; always wash your hands after removing thegloves.

• Onlydispense a liquid labeled "Flammable" from its bulk container locatedin areas posted "Flammable Liquid Storage"

• Beforepouring, dispensing or transferring any liquid from a bulk container labeled"Flammable", observe the following safety procedure:

1. Only use the redcolor-coded, plastic or metal containers for transferring the liquid.
2.  Electrically ground andbond the containers as follows:

• a) Attach the clip at oneend of the grounding wire to the rim of the dispensing container and thenattach the clip at the other end of the grounding wire to a ground source, suchas a ground driven steel stake.

• b) Attach the clip at oneend of the bonding wire to the rim of the dispensing container and then attachthe clip at the other end of the bonding wire to the rim of the receivingcontainer.

• c) You are now ready todispense the liquid from the bulk container into the opened receivingcontainer. Upon completion, replace the lid on the receiving container andremove the bonding wire.

• Beforeusing the chemical exhaust hood, flip the fan motor switch to the"On" position

• Do notuse chemicals from unlabeled containers or unmarked cylinders

• Do notperform "hot work", such as welding, metal grinding or other sparkproducing operations, within 50 feet of containers labeled"Flammable" or "Combustible"

• Do notdrag containers labeled "Flammable"

• Use therubber cradle when transporting unpackaged, glass bottles of chemicals

• Do notstore chemical containers labeled "Oxidizer" with containers labeled"Corrosive" or "Caustic"

Fire Extinguiser Selection

Portable fireextinguishers can saves lives and property by putting out or containing fireswithin the capability of the extinguisher. However, they must be of the correcttype for the particular fire, and they must used correctly.

Selection of Fire Extinguishers
There are a number of types of portable fire extinguishers available inAustralia. Each type of extinguisher may be rated for one or more classes offire. In some cases, particular extinguishers are not only consideredineffective against certain classes of fire, they can be dangerous if used inthose circumstances.

The classes of fire are:

Class A : Ordinary combustibles (Wood, Paper,Plastics)
Class B : Flammable and combustible liquids
Class C : Flammable gases
Class D : Combustible metals
Class E : Electrically energised equipment
Class F : Cooking oils and fats

Portable fire extinguishers are distinguishable by their labels and theircolouring. In 1997 the standard colours of some portable fire extinguisherswere changed. It is therefore likely that you may encounter two of the sametype of extinguisher with different colourings.

Fire Protection Improve

Australia, -- Standards Australia has released an interim standard to assist fireauthorities in the selection and development of protective clothing forfirefighters. Fire agencies, the fabric technology industry, manufacturers andunion representatives contributed to the development of interim standard AS4967 -- 2001 -- Protective clothing for firefighters -- Requirements and testmethods for protective clothing used for structural firefighting. The recentlyselected New South Wales Fire Brigade uniforms have a garment shell andprotective liner for ease of cleaning and long-term maintenance. They conformto the standard. Two other fire clothing standards have also been released -- AS4824 (Int) -- 2001 -- Protective clothing for firefighters -- Requirements andtest methods for protective clothing used for wildland firefighting, and AS/NZS4821 (Int) -- 2000 -- Firefighters' protective footwear. 

A draft revision of the Standards Australiaportable fire extinguisher standard is expected later this year. Changes toAS/NZS: 1841 -- Portable fire extinguishers, may include the removal of the"E" fire classification when the extinguishing agent is a conductorof electricity, such as water or a conductive aqueous solution. There isconcern about the potential exposure of an operator to electrocution. 

Work continues on a revision of the StandardsAustralia fire maintenance standard. It is anticipated the revised AS 1851 --1995 -- Maintenance of fire protection systems, will be published in the secondhalf of 2002. The existing 16 parts of the standard will be consolidated. It isalso anticipated the standard will be referenced in the Building Code ofAustralia, making it mandatory.

On Office Fire Prevention Strategies

Learn the location of fireescape routes and how to activate the fire alarm. Participate in practice firedrills on a regular basis. Become familiar with stairway exits - elevators maynot function during a fire, or may expose passengers to heat, gas and smoke.

Through a program of scheduled inspections, unsafe conditions can be recognizedand corrected before they lead to serious injuries. Take a few moments each dayto walk through your work area. Look for items previously pointed out, such asobjects protruding into walkways, file cabinets that are weighted toward thetop or frayed electrical cords. Advise personnel in the area of the hazards andset about correcting them.

• Heat-producing equipment - copiers, work processors, coffee makers and hotplates - are often overlooked as a potential fire hazard. Keep them away fromanything that might burn.

•  Electrical appliances can be fire hazards. Be sure to turn off allappliances at the end of the day. Use only grounded appliances plugged intogrounded outlets (three prong plug).

•  If electrical equipment malfunctions or gives off a strange odor, disconnectit and call the appropriate maintenance personnel. Promptly disconnect andreplace cracked, frayed, or broken electrical cords.

• Keep extension cords clear of doorways and other areas where they can bestepped on or chafed and never plug one extension cord into another.

• Do not allow combustible material (boxes, paper, etc.) to build up ininappropriate storage locations (near sources of ignition).

Emergency Preparedness
One result of the recent trend toward open officeenvironments is that smoke from office fires is not contained or isolated aseffectively as in less open designs. Open office designs allows smoke to spreadquickly and the incorporation of many synthetic and other combustible materialin office fixtures (such as furniture, rugs, drapes, plastic wastebaskets, andvinyl covered walls) often makes 'smoky' fires. In addition to being smoky,many synthetic materials can emit toxic materials during a fire.

For example, cyanide can be emitted from urethane which is commonly used inupholstery stuffing. Most burning materials can emit carbon monoxide.Inhalation of these toxic materials can severely hamper an office worker'schances of getting out of a fire in time. This makes it imperative for officeworkers to recognize the signal to evacuate their work area and know how toexit in an expedient manner.

The local emergency action plan will address potential emergencies that can beexpected in your work area. For emergency evacuation, the use of floor plans orworkplace maps that clearly show the emergency escape routes and safe or refugeareas should be included in the plan.

All employees must understand what actions theyare to take in the work area and assemble in a safe zone. All new employeesshould discuss how they should respond to emergencies with their supervisorsshortly after starting work and whenever their responsibilities under the planchange.

This orientation should include:

Identifyingthe individuals responsible for various aspects of the plan (chain of command)so that in an emergency confusion will be minimized and employees will have nodoubt about who has authority for making decisions.

Identifyingthe method of communication that will be used to alert employees that anevacuation or some other action is required as well as how employees can reportemergencies (such as manual pull stations, public address systems, ortelephones).

Identifyingthe evacuation routes from the building and locations where employees willgather

General guidancefor fires and related emergencies includes:

If you discover a fire or see/smell smoke,immediately follow these procedures:

Notifythe local Fire Department

NotifyCDC Physical Security or Building Security Force

Activatethe building alarm (fire pull station). If not available or operational,verbally notify people in the building.

Isolatethe area by closing windows and doors and evacuate the building, if you can doso safely.

Shut downequipment in the immediate area, if possible.

Ifpossible and if you have received appropriate training, use a portable fireextinguisher to:

assist oneself to evacuate;
assist another to evacuate; and
control a small fire.

Do notcollect personal or official items; leave the area of the fire immediately andwalk, do not run to the exit and designated gathering area.

Youshould provide the fire/police teams with the details of the problem upon theirarrival. Special hazard information you might know is essential for the safetyof the emergency responders. You should not re-enter the building untildirected to do so. Follow any special procedures established for your unit.

If thefire alarms are ringing in your building, you must evacuate the building andstay out until notified to return. Move to your designated meeting location orupwind from the building staying clear of streets, driveways, sidewalks, andother access ways to the building. If you are a supervisor, try to account foryour employees, keep them together and report any missing persons to theemergency personnel at the scene.

If anindividual is overexposed to smoke or chemical vapors, remove the person to anuncontaminated area and treat for shock. Do not enter the area if you suspectthat a life threatening condition still exists (such as heavy smoke or toxicgases). If CPR certified, follow standard CPR protocols. Get medical attentionpromptly.

If youror another person's clothing catches fire, extinguish the burning clothing byusing the drop-and-roll technique, wrap victim in a fire blanket or dousevictim with cold water (use an emergency shower if it is immediatelyavailable). Carefully remove contaminated clothing; however, avoid furtherdamage to the burned area. Cover injured person to prevent shock. Get medicalattention promptly.

Fire Understanding

The Phenomenon of Fire

Fire is the visible heat energy being released from rapid oxidation of afuel.  Something is
'on fire' when the exothermal release of heat from the oxidation reactionreaches visible light level.

Basically, combustion takes place within two modes-flaming andflameless. The flaming mode can be viewed as a tetrahedron, with each siderepresenting one of the four basic
components of flaming combusion: fuel, heat, oxygen and uninhibited chainreaction. Here the practical emphasis is on extinguishing an existingfire.

The classic fire triangle illustrates the flameless mode, the three legsrepresenting fuel, oxygen and heat. Air provides oxygen forcombustion. The heat required for ignition varies with the characteristicsof the fuel. Fuel is any substance that will sustain combusion after theinitial application of heat to start it. Here the practical emphasis is onpreventing a fire from starting by prohibiting the formation of thetriangle.    

How Flammable Liquids Safety Equipment Defeats Fire

Safety equipment for use in storing, transporting or dispensingflammable liquids is designed to control one or more of the legs of the FireTriangle.

Containment of the liquid fuel to prevent it from spreading in event offire is a primary function of all safety containers. These containers includesafety cans, rinse and wash tanks, bench and plunger cans, rinse and washtanks, bench and plunger cans, drip cans, storage cabinets, waste containersand others.

Dissipation of heat to prevent flammable liquid vapor from reachingignition temperature is another function built into certain types of safetyequipment. This is accomplised by the flame arrester which is common tosafety cans and faucets, bench cans and other equipment. The flame arrester, inthe form of a wire mesh screen or perforated baffle plate, permits escapingvapor to burn but dissipates heat so that vapor inside the container will notignite or explode.

Closing out oxygen is still another function of certain safetycontainers. For example, when the lids of self-closing rinse and cleaningtanks shut, they snuff out fire by closing off the oxygen supply.

Characteristics of Flammable Liquids

In order to best understand the hazards of flammable liquids and thecontrol procedures and to interpret the tabular material, the followingdefinitions will prove useful.

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Flammability Hazard Classification.

In addition to the NFPA, this is also a system for grading the relativeflammability hazards of various liquids. This is a useful classificationbecause actual hazard in use of a flammable liquid is dependent on a number offactors in addition to flash point. These are the UL classes of relativeflammability hazards:

Ether : class 100 (max hazard)
Gasoline : class 90-100
Alcohol (ethyl) : class 60-70
Kerosene  : class 30-40
Paraffin Oil : class 10-20

Classifications, Flammable and Combustible Liquids.  

A flammable liquid is one having a flash point below 100 degree F andhaving a vapor pressure not exceeding 40 lb/sq in. absolute at 100 degree F. Acombustible liquid is one having a flash point at or above 100 degree F.

Vapor. In any liquid there is a constant movement ofmolecules. As temperature increases, the molecules speed up, someacquiring enough energy to escape from the liquid surface as a vapor.When vaporescapes from a flammable liquid into the air, a flammable or explosivesituation can occur, dependent upon the proportions of the air/vapor mixture.

Flash point is the lowest temperature of a flammable liquid at which itgives off vapor sufficient to form an ignitable mixture with the air near thesurface of the liquid or within the vessel used. Combusion is not continuous atthe flash point. Flash point is the basic characteristic used by NFPA toclassify the relative hazards of liquids.

Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature to which flammableliquid vapor in air must be heated in order to initiate or cause self-sustainedcombustion independently of the original heat source.One might tend to discountthe high hazards of flammable liquids when noting the relatively high ignitiontemperatures (gasolines, for example, are in the 500 to 800 degree Frange). But what must be recognised is that an extremely small area andduration of temperature contact is all that's needed to set flammable vaporaflame. A static spark with the duration of a few thousandths of a second,contacting a few molecules of the vapor/air mixture is enough to raise thetemperatures above the ignition point.

Flammable (explosive) range of flammable liquids is the percentage rangeof liquid vapor in air, by volume, within which ignition canoccur. Gasoline, for example, has an explosive range between 1.4% and7.6%. This indicates that any concentration of gasoline vapor in airbetween these percentage limits will ignite at any temperature above -45 degreeF (flash point) when an ignition source provides a contact temperature in therange of 500 degree to 800 degree F (ignition temperature, depending on type ofgasoline). Auto engine carburetion is designed to keep the gas/air mixturefed to the cylinders within this explosive range. Too 'lean' a mixture (near orbelow 1.4%) or too 'rich' (at or above 7.6%) causes engine firing failure orfaulty operation because the gasoline vapor/air mixture is at the limits of theexplosive range.

Explosive range figures are based on normal atmospheric temperatures andpressures.  There may be a considerable variation in explosive range whereother temperatures and pressure are present. Increases in temperature willwiden the explosive range.  Pressure differences depend on theflammable liquid involved but substantial vacuum (pressure decrease) willgenerally narrow the explosive range.

Specific gravity of flammable liquids is important in fire preventionplanning to anticipate behavior of hazardous materials where water or otherliquids are present under fire conditions. Many flammable liquids withspecific gravity below 1 (lighter than water) are also insoluble inwater. In the event of fire with such liquids present, water may beineffective as an extinguishing agent.

Water solubility refers to the degree to which a flammable liquid issoluble in water. This is useful in determining effective extinguishingagents and methods. Alcohol-resistant type foam, for example, is usuallyrecommended for water soluble flammable liquids.

Vapor pressure of liquids is below 40 pounds per square inch absolute,at 100 degree F, by definition. Materials with higher vapor pressures aredefined as gases at 100 degree F to establish a convenient technical separationbetween the two forms of matter. Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted byvapor above the surface of a liquid in a closed container. It is caused byevaporation and is stabilized by confinement in a closed container to apressure characteristic of the specific liquid.As temperature increases, thevapor pressure of a liquid increases. At the point where the vaporpressure equals atmospheric pressure, the escape of molecules from the liquidsurface is greatly accelerated and boiling takes place.

Vapor pressures of flammable liquids are an important consideration infire prevention.They give the relative speed of evaporation: the higher thevapor pressure, the greater the evaporation rate and the more vapor escapepotential every time a safety container is opened.

Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature of the liquid at which itsvapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure.

Vapor density, as commonly used in fire protection, is the weight of avolume of pure gas compared to the weight of an equal of volume of dry air atthe same temperature pressure.  A figure greater than 1 indicates that agas is heavier than air. This means that any escaped vapor will settledownward onto floors and flow with air currents, around corners and down stairsor elevator shafts to pool in low spots. If the source liquid is open and acontinuous supply of vapor is flowing, a spark anywhere along the vapor trail -perhaps hundreds of feet or several floors away - will set off an explosion andfire that may envelop an entire building almost instantly.

A Quick Guide to Buy Safety Shoes

 Workers often ignore to wear the right safety shoes, even though they wear safety shoes during all the working hours. In fact, wearing the right safety shoes will directly affect to their safety and health as well as their productivities. As a part of personal protective equipment (PPE), safety shoes are expected to provide not only safety but also comfort to workers’ feet.

By considering the two aims, we will talk about factors that determine selection of the right ones.

 Choose Safety Shoes with the Right FitComport and protection can only be achieved if we buy safety shoes that fit correctly with the feet. This condition actually applies to all personal protective equipments. Workers should size carefully and spare extra time to choose the most right safety shoes before deciding to buy. To get the best results, workers should try several different brands, styles and of course the sizes.

Select leather as the shoes material. It is the most suitable material in the industry. It will require extra time before the shoes can be used in best comfort. So that it becomes crucial to select the right size since the beginning.

If we plan to use extra thick socks, then we need to buy safety shoes with a little bigger size to accommodate it. The same cases apply when we select shoes with liners and padding or orthopedic insoles.

Buy the Most Suitable Safety ShoesThere are many types of safety shoes available in the market and each of them are designed for different applications. Steel toe boot is the most suitable and common safety shoes for protecting workers from various hazards that present in the chemical plant site such as ankles sprains, impacts, falling objects, crushing hazards and etc. To protect feet and toes, we can buy safety shoes with high ankle, rugged design and reinforced toe.

For the jobs on wet surface and outdoor, select waterproof type safety shoes. And for work associated with liquid chemicals where splash and spill hazards exist, the most suitable shoes are boots type. Some chemicals may cause glue to lose and the chemicals penetrate inside and go onto the foot. Ensure that the adhesive material that is used as glue is chemically resistant.

Beside chemical and mechanical hazards, safety shoes also protect workers from electrical hazards.

Safety Shoes Styles and BrandsBuy safety shoes only from reputable manufacturers. Collect information before deciding from which manufacturers we will buy. The companies nearby your plant site may have good experiences. Consult with them for free. But remember do not buy safety shoes by just look at the price. Quality product will have a minimum lowest price.

We have a wide range of selection for the styles and materials. In general, common material that is supportive, durable and water resistance is leather.

Unfortunately, leather has some disadvantages compared with other materials. It is heavier and non breathable material. To get the best performance of safety shoes, combination with another material is necessary, such as with nylon.

Chemical splash shoes and waterproof boots are made of latex and rubber. Padded insoles and waterproof liner are frequently added in the most models.

Try to understand all the above factors and you will see that buying safety shoes in not a complicated task. In order to get the right safety shoes for safety in jobs, invest a little extra research and time.